International Journal of Epidemiology 2000;29:49-56
© International Epidemiological Association 2000
Cardiovascular risk factor changes in Finland, 1972–1997
Reprint requests to: Dr Erkki Vartiainen, Department of Epidemiology and Health Promotion, National Public Health Institute, Mannerheimintie 166, FIN-00300 Helsinki, Finland. E-mail: erkki.vartiainen{at}ktl.fi
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Abstract |
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Background The cardiovascular risk factor levels of the population have been assessed in Finland since 1972. In the beginning the surveys were done to evaluate the North Karelia Project, which was a community-based preventive programme. A national cardiovascular disease (CVD) prevention strategy was developed and implemented during the late 1970s. Subsequently, a national cardiovascular risk factors monitoring system was developed to assess the effectiveness of the national strategy.
Methods Cross-sectional population samples were studied in 1972 and 1977 in North Karelia and Kuopio provinces in eastern Finland. An area in southwestern Finland was included in 1982, followed by the Helsinki metropolitan area in 1992 and Oulu province in northern Finland in 1997. A total of 19 761 men and 20 761 women aged 30–59 participated in the six surveys (1972, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1997).
Results The serum cholesterol levels of both genders have continuously declined. Systolic blood pressure levels have declined since 1972, but no further decline in diastolic blood pressure was found in 1997. Smoking prevalence among men continued to decline mainly due to an increase in the percentage of never-smokers. For the first time the increase in smoking prevalence among women levelled off and started to decline, mainly because the number of female quitters had increased.
Conclusions These data suggest that the cardiovascular health programme in Finland has succeeded in decreasing the general risk factor level of the population.
Keywords Cardiovascular diseases, prevention, risk factors
Accepted 22 June 1999
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Introduction |
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In the 1960s international mortality statistics, corroborated by the Seven Countries Study, showed that Finnish men had the world's highest mortality rate from ischaemic heart disease.1 The North Karelia Project was started to test whether the main risk factors of blood pressure, cholesterol and smoking could be reduced in the population and whether this would reduce mortality from cardiovascular diseases (CVD).2 Based on the project's encouraging experiences in North Karelia, the prevention of cardiovascular and other major chronic non-communicable diseases became part of national health policy.3 To evaluate the effectiveness of these health strategies, a risk factor monitoring system (the National FINRISK Study) was developed.
In Finland the risk factors have been monitored since 1972 by conducting population surveys every fifth year. The first surveys were done to evaluate the North Karelia Project, which was one of the first community-based CVD prevention programmes.2 From 1982 to 1992 the surveys were part of the WHO MONICA (Multinational MONItoring of trends and determinants in CArdiovascular disease) study and since 1982 also part of the WHO CINDI programme.4 The 1992 and 1997 surveys were expanded to assess the effectiveness of Finland's chronic disease prevention strategies. The aim of this paper is to describe the most recent changes pertaining to the main cardiovascular risk factors in different areas in Finland, and to assess the long-term changes in North Karelia with a community-based CVD prevention programme and its reference area.
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Material and Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterial and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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Six cross-sectional population surveys (1972, 1977, 1982, 1987, 1992, 1997) assessed the levels of CVD risk factors in North Karelia and Kuopio provinces in eastern Finland. Over the years more survey areas have been added: part of southwestern Finland in 1982, the Helsinki metropolitan area in 1992, and the northern province of Oulu in 1997. For each survey, an independent random sample was drawn from the population register. In the first and second surveys (1972, 1977), a random sample of 6.6% of the population born during the period 1913–1947 was drawn in both areas. In 1982, 1987, 1992 and 1997 the sample included people ages 25–64; the samples were stratified according to the WHO MONICA protocol so that at least 250 subjects of each sex and 10-year age group were chosen in each area. The common age range in all six surveys was 30–59 years. The sample sizes and participation rates are given in Table 1
.
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The survey methods followed the WHO MONICA protocol from 1982 to 1997; these were comparable with the methods used in 1972 and 1977. The surveys included a self-administered questionnaire (mainly including questions on socioeconomic factors, medical history, health behaviour, and psychosocial factors) and measurements of height, weight and blood pressure. A venous blood specimen was taken to determine serum total cholesterol and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol. In 1982 and 1987 serum thiocyanate was also determined, and in 1992 serum cotinine concentration was determined.
The measurements were taken by specially trained nurses. Each survey followed the same methods as closely as possible. Blood pressure was measured from the right arm of the subject, who was seated for 5 min before the measurement. The fifth phase of the Korotkoff sounds was recorded as the diastolic pressure. In 1972 and 1977, a shorter cuff bladder (23 cm) was used than that used in 1982, 1987 and 1992 (42 cm). Serum cholesterol was determined in 1972 and 1977 from frozen samples using the Liebermann-Burchard method; since 1982 serum cholesterol was measured from fresh serum samples using an enzymatic method (CHOD-PAP, Boehringer Mannheim). The enzymatic assay method gave 2.4% lower values than Liebermann-Burchard. Cholesterol values of the 1972 and 1977 surveys were corrected by this percentage. All cholesterol determinations were made in the same central laboratory standardized with national and international reference laboratories.
Smoking was assessed using a standard set of questions in a self-administered questionnaire. Based on the responses, the participants were classified into three categories: Current smokers—those who had smoked regularly (cigarettes, cigars or pipe) for at least one year and had smoked during the preceding month. Ex-smokers—those who had smoked regularly but had stopped smoking at least one month before the survey. Never smokers—those who had never smoked regularly.
The analysis of variance was done to determine the mean between each 5-year interval for all the areas available in the given year. To calculate the proportions, a log-linear model was used as the statistical method.5
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Results |
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Cholesterol
From 1972 to 1997 mean total serum cholesterol level had declined 18% in North Karelia among both men and women, and 15% and 19% among men and women in Kuopio province, respectively. During the first 5 years the decline was faster among men in North Karelia than in Kuopio province. After 1977 the decline in cholesterol level has been similar in different areas (Table 6
). In southwestern Finland both genders' cholesterol had decreased 9% during the period 1982 to 1997. Pooling all the areas together cholesterol level had decreased 4.1% among men and 1.3% among women between 1992 and 1997. The difference between men and women was statistically significant (Table 2).
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The mean cholesterol level for men was 5.61 mmol/l and 5.45 mmol/l for women in the pooled area in 1997. Cholesterol level was statistically significantly higher in the eastern and northern provinces (North Karelia, Kuopio and Oulu) than in southern (Helsinki metropolitan area) and southwestern Finland. Decline in cholesterol among women has been similar in all study areas (Table 6
). About half of the population had moderately high cholesterol values (5–6.5 mmol/l), and 18% of men and 15% of women had values higher than 6.5 mmol/l.
Blood pressure
Between 1972 and 1997, systolic blood pressure in North Karelia has declined by 9 mmHg among men and 20 mmHg among women, and in Kuopio province 7 mmHg and 11 mmHg, respectively. Since 1982 systolic blood pressure in southwestern Finland has declined 8 mmHg among men and 7 mm among women (Table 3).
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The pooled mean systolic blood pressure level was 138 mmHg among men and 131 mmHg among women. The mean values were higher in the eastern and the northern survey areas than in the southern and the southwestern areas. High systolic blood pressure values (160+) were observed in 12% of men and 9% of women.
It seems that the decline in diastolic blood pressure has ended. From 1972 to 1992 the mean value declined 6 mmHg among men and 11 mmHg among women, but from 1992 to 1997 diastolic blood pressure showed no decline (Table 4). High diastolic blood pressure (95+) was observed in 20% of men and 9% of women.
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Smoking
Smoking prevalence among men declined in North Karelia from 52% in 1972 to 31% in 1997. Between 1972 and 1982 smoking declined more in North Karelia than in the reference area. This occurred because a greater proportion of smokers quit. However, the latest decline in smoking can be explained mainly by the increase of the proportion of never-smokers. The difference between North Karelia and Kuopio disappeared between 1992 and 1997 because smoking cessation increased more in Kuopio province than in North Karelia. The increase in smoking among women levelled off and declined slightly between the 1992 and 1997 surveys. The main reason for this was an increase in cessation, given the finding that the percentage of never-smokers declined (Table 5
).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMaterial and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
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The average cardiovascular risk level has decreased markedly in Finland since 1972. In both genders serum cholesterol and systolic blood pressure continued to decline between the last two surveys from 1992 to 1997. Among men smoking has been declining since 1972. As for women, the 1997 survey was the first that did not indicate an increase in smoking, and the first signs of a decline could even be seen, especially in the Helsinki metropolitan area. The only exception to this overall positive trend was diastolic blood pressure in which the decrease levelled off between 1992 and 1997.
Risk factors developed more favourably in North Karelia at the beginning of the community-based CVD prevention project. Subsequently the development in risk factors has been similar in different areas. This may indicate that the national strategy has been adopted in a very similar way in different parts of the country.
The decline in serum total cholesterol can be explained by dietary changes. Twenty-five years ago the saturated fat intake was 20–21% of energy, which decreased to 15–16% in 19926 and to 14–15% in 1997,7 and the very low level of polyunsaturated fat intake has increased from 2–3% to 5–6% of energy since 1972. The main change on a behavioural level has been the decline in the use of butter on bread from almost 90% to 10%. Butter has been replaced by soft margarine and butter-vegetable oil mixtures. Most people also used butter for cooking and baking 25 years ago, but now oils and margarines have replaced it. Whole milk has been replaced by low-fat and skimmed milk.
The North Karelia Project started to communicate health information to the public on diet and heart diseases in the early 1970s. Many Finnish eating habits at that time worked against recommended dietary changes. Butter, cheese, cream and whole milk were regarded as healthy, especially for children. Finland was a butter and milk producer, and all vegetable oil was imported. Butter and milk production was subsidized by the government, and margarine was taxed to keep its price equivalent to butter.
Based on health information, people started to change their dietary habits in the 1970s. The food and agricultural industries followed the trend. Soft margarine was introduced in the late 1970s. A domestic vegetable oil and rapeseed oil industry was developed and their popularity grew in the 1980s. Low-fat and skimmed milk were introduced. The Finnish government issued a health policy statement in 1985 in parliament which indicated that health issues have important implications extending beyond the health sector. A new law was passed to allow low-fat spread and mixed butter and oils to compete.
In the 1970s there was a large debate within the medical community on the role of diet and cholesterol in CVD prevention. However, in the 1980s a general consensus was developed by the medical community on the need for dietary change,3 which led to a larger consensus among the general population and also facilitated the political consensus needed for legislative change. The medical community recommended cholesterol screenings for all people over 20 years of age every 5 years. This greatly increased people's interest in their diets.
It is more difficult to explain why blood pressure has decreased as alcohol consumption8 and obesity have increased.9 The mean annual alcohol consumption was 5 l per capita in 1970 and 7.5 l in 1997. Only part of the decline in blood pressure can be explained by an increase in the use of medication for hypertension, because the whole blood pressure distribution has shifted, and not only the high values have decreased. There has been some decline in salt consumption, but it is unlikely that this explains much of the blood pressure decline. There is some evidence, especially from Finland, that blood pressure can be reduced by decreasing the saturated oil and increasing the polyunsaturated fats in the diet.10 Also, a cohort study showed an association between changes in blood pressure and cholesterol after controlling for age and body mass index.11
A new finding from the last survey was that systolic blood pressure is continuing to decline but diastolic blood pressure stopped declining. This phenomenon has also been observed in the Netherlands and by the Minnesota Heart Surveys.12,13 There is no obvious reason for these observations. One possibility is that reduced atherosclerosis increased arterial elasticity and lowered systolic blood pressure, but increasing obesity unfavourably influences diastolic blood pressure.
Finland has been active in developing anti-smoking initiatives. The work has consisted of comprehensive measures ranging from research and demonstration programmes to legislation and public policy.14 The North Karelia Project has been used as a major national demonstration project. Health services and many non-governmental organizations have been actively involved, and many innovative campaigns have taken place, e.g. TV smoking cessation programmes, and Quit and Win campaigns. A law to reduce the harmful consequences of smoking was passed in 1977 and amended in 1995. The main content of the law is as follows: prohibition of all forms of tobacco advertising, warnings on tobacco packages, limits on harmful substances, prohibition of smoking at schools, public vehicles and public indoor places, prohibition of smoking at all (indoor) workplaces, except in offices intended for only one person and in designated smoking rooms (with special ventilation), prohibition of the sale of tobacco to people under 18 years, prohibition of the sale of smokeless tobacco, prohibition of smoking in school playgrounds, and the designation of 0.5% of tobacco tax revenues for health education and research. This has amounted to about 20 million Finnish marks (5 million USD) annually or roughly 1 USD per capita in Finland.
The development of smoking trends in different populations can be divided into three phases.15 In the first phase smoking is predominantly a man's habit and relatively few women smoke. In the second phase smoking prevalence decreases among men and increases among women, and in the third phase smoking declines among men and women. Finland is clearly entering the third phase. In most European countries female smoking is still on the increase,15 and only a few countries in the world are seeing a decline among both sexes.16 The main reason for the decline among men is the increasing number of subjects who have never smoked regularly in their life. Smoking cessation has not seen a marked increase since the 1970s. The main reason for the levelling off or small decline among women is an increase in the number of women who stop smoking. Smoking onset is still more prevalent among younger cohorts, although this increase is levelling off in the youngest cohort.
Mortality from coronary heart disease has decreased by 73% in North Karelia and 65% nationwide. Among men, cerebrovascular diseases and lung cancer mortality have also greatly declined.17 Most of the decline in mortality seems to be related to the described changes in risk factors, especially those of the 1970s and 1980s.18
In summary, CVD risk factor levels have declined markedly in Finland in the past decades, and the declining trend continued also between 1992 and 1997. The results suggest that the national preventive cardiovascular strategy has been successful. Further reductions of the risk factor levels still hold great potential for improved public health.
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Notes |
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National Public Health Institute, Helsinki, Finland.
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References |
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 E. Suviolahti, K. Reue, R. M. Cantor, J. Phan, M. Gentile, J. Naukkarinen, A. Soro-Paavonen, L. Oksanen, J. Kaprio, A. Rissanen, et al. Cross-species analyses implicate Lipin 1 involvement in human glucose metabolism Hum. Mol. Genet., February 1, 2006; 15(3): 377 - 386. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. Hu, C. Sarti, P. Jousilahti, M. Peltonen, Q. Qiao, R. Antikainen, and J. Tuomilehto The Impact of History of Hypertension and Type 2 Diabetes at Baseline on the Incidence of Stroke and Stroke Mortality Stroke, December 1, 2005; 36(12): 2538 - 2543. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Ballantyne, B. Arroll, and J. Shepherd Lipids and CVD management: towards a global consensus Eur. Heart J., November 1, 2005; 26(21): 2224 - 2231. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. Laatikainen, J. Critchley, E. Vartiainen, V. Salomaa, M. Ketonen, and S. Capewell Explaining the Decline in Coronary Heart Disease Mortality in Finland between 1982 and 1997 Am. J. Epidemiol., October 15, 2005; 162(8): 764 - 773. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 B. Unal, J. A. Critchley, and S. Capewell Modelling the decline in coronary heart disease deaths in England and Wales, 1981-2000: comparing contributions from primary prevention and secondary prevention BMJ, September 17, 2005; 331(7517): 614. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Hu, C. Sarti, P. Jousilahti, K. Silventoinen, N. C. Barengo, and J. Tuomilehto Leisure Time, Occupational, and Commuting Physical Activity and the Risk of Stroke Stroke, September 1, 2005; 36(9): 1994 - 1999. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Hu, P. Jousilahti, Q. Qiao, M. Peltonen, S. Katoh, and J. Tuomilehto The Gender-Specific Impact of Diabetes and Myocardial Infarction at Baseline and During Follow-Up on Mortality From All Causes and Coronary Heart Disease J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., May 3, 2005; 45(9): 1413 - 1418. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. Saaristo, M. Peltonen, J. Lindstrom, L. Saarikoski, J. Sundvall, J. G. Eriksson, and J. Tuomilehto Cross-sectional evaluation of the Finnish Diabetes Risk Score: a tool to identify undetected type 2 diabetes, abnormal glucose tolerance and metabolic syndrome Diabetes and Vascular Disease Research, May 1, 2005; 2(2): 67 - 72. [Abstract] [PDF]
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 P. Jousilahti, V. Salomaa, K. Kuulasmaa, M. Niemela, and E. Vartiainen Total and cause specific mortality among participants and non-participants of population based health surveys: a comprehensive follow up of 54 372 Finnish men and women J Epidemiol Community Health, April 1, 2005; 59(4): 310 - 315. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Hu, P. Jousilahti, N. C. Barengo, Q. Qiao, T. A. Lakka, and J. Tuomilehto Physical Activity, Cardiovascular Risk Factors, and Mortality Among Finnish Adults With Diabetes Diabetes Care, April 1, 2005; 28(4): 799 - 805. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K. Silventoinen, J. Pankow, P. Jousilahti, G. Hu, and J. Tuomilehto Educational inequalities in the metabolic syndrome and coronary heart disease among middle-aged men and women Int. J. Epidemiol., April 1, 2005; 34(2): 327 - 334. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Juonala, J. S.A. Viikari, M. Kahonen, L. Taittonen, T. Ronnemaa, T. Laitinen, N. Maki-Torkko, V. Mikkila, L. Rasanen, H. K. Akerblom, et al. Geographic Origin as a Determinant of Carotid Artery Intima-Media Thickness and Brachial Artery Flow-Mediated Dilation: The Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns Study Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol, February 1, 2005; 25(2): 392 - 398. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. C Barengo, G. Hu, T. A Lakka, H. Pekkarinen, A. Nissinen, and J. Tuomilehto Low physical activity as a predictor for total and cardiovascular disease mortality in middle-aged men and women in Finland Eur. Heart J., December 2, 2004; 25(24): 2204 - 2211. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Hu, J. Tuomilehto, K. Silventoinen, N. Barengo, and P. Jousilahti Joint effects of physical activity, body mass index, waist circumference and waist-to-hip ratio with the risk of cardiovascular disease among middle-aged Finnish men and women Eur. Heart J., December 2, 2004; 25(24): 2212 - 2219. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M.-R. Jarvelin, U. Sovio, V. King, L. Lauren, B. Xu, M. I. McCarthy, A.-L. Hartikainen, J. Laitinen, P. Zitting, P. Rantakallio, et al. Early Life Factors and Blood Pressure at Age 31 Years in the 1966 Northern Finland Birth Cohort Hypertension, December 1, 2004; 44(6): 838 - 846. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. H. Lee, K. Silventoinen, D. R. Jacobs Jr., P. Jousilahti, and J. Tuomileto {gamma}-Glutamyltransferase, Obesity, and the Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Observational Cohort Study among 20,158 Middle-Aged Men and Women J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2004; 89(11): 5410 - 5414. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Emberson, P. Whincup, R. Morris, and M Walker Reducing social inequalities and the prevention of coronary heart disease Int. J. Epidemiol., October 1, 2004; 33(5): 1152 - 1153. [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Hu, J. Eriksson, N. C. Barengo, T. A. Lakka, T. T. Valle, A. Nissinen, P. Jousilahti, and J. Tuomilehto Occupational, Commuting, and Leisure-Time Physical Activity in Relation to Total and Cardiovascular Mortality Among Finnish Subjects With Type 2 Diabetes Circulation, August 10, 2004; 110(6): 666 - 673. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S Helakorpi, T Martelin, J Torppa, K Patja, E Vartiainen, and A Uutela Did Finland's Tobacco Control Act of 1976 have an impact on ever smoking? An examination based on male and female cohort trends J Epidemiol Community Health, August 1, 2004; 58(8): 649 - 654. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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B. Jiang, W.-z. Wang, S.-p. Wu, X.-l. Du, and Q.-j. Bao Effects of Urban Community Intervention on 3-Year Survival and Recurrence After First-Ever Stroke Stroke, June 1, 2004; 35(6): 1242 - 1247. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Taponen, H. Martikainen, M.-R. Jarvelin, U. Sovio, J. Laitinen, A. Pouta, A.-L. Hartikainen, M. I. McCarthy, S. Franks, M. Paldanius, et al. Metabolic Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors in Women with Self-Reported Symptoms of Oligomenorrhea and/or Hirsutism: Northern Finland Birth Cohort 1966 Study J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., May 1, 2004; 89(5): 2114 - 2118. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Hu, J. Lindstrom, T. T. Valle, J. G. Eriksson, P. Jousilahti, K. Silventoinen, Q. Qiao, and J. Tuomilehto Physical Activity, Body Mass Index, and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Patients With Normal or Impaired Glucose Regulation Arch Intern Med, April 26, 2004; 164(8): 892 - 896. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 J. Tuomilehto, G. Hu, S. Bidel, J. Lindstrom, and P. Jousilahti Coffee Consumption and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Among Middle-aged Finnish Men and Women JAMA, March 10, 2004; 291(10): 1213 - 1219. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Vartiainen A lot more can be done to prevent cardiovascular diseases Eur. Heart J., March 2, 2004; 25(6): 457 - 458. [Full Text] [PDF]
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A Kousa, E Moltchanova, M Viik-Kajander, M Rytkonen, J Tuomilehto, T Tarvainen, and M Karvonen Geochemistry of ground water and the incidence of acute myocardial infarction in Finland J Epidemiol Community Health, February 1, 2004; 58(2): 136 - 139. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Sivenius, J. Tuomilehto, P. Immonen-Raiha, M. Kaarisalo, C. Sarti, J. Torppa, K. Kuulasmaa, M. Mahonen, A. Lehtonen, and V. Salomaa Continuous 15-Year Decrease in Incidence and Mortality of Stroke in Finland: The FINSTROKE Study Stroke, February 1, 2004; 35(2): 420 - 425. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Hu, N. C. Barengo, J. Tuomilehto, T. A. Lakka, A. Nissinen, and P. Jousilahti Relationship of Physical Activity and Body Mass Index to the Risk of Hypertension: A Prospective Study in Finland Hypertension, January 1, 2004; 43(1): 25 - 30. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. E. Kottke What is the optimal diet for cardiovascular health? BMJ, October 6, 2003; 327(7418): E31 - 32. [Full Text] [PDF]
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 P. J. Pussinen, T. Laatikainen, G. Alfthan, S. Asikainen, and P. Jousilahti Periodontitis Is Associated with a Low Concentration of Vitamin C in Plasma Clin. Vaccine Immunol., September 1, 2003; 10(5): 897 - 902. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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V. Salomaa, M. Ketonen, H. Koukkunen, P. Immonen-Raiha, T. Jerkkola, P. Karja-Koskenkari, M. Mahonen, M. Niemela, K. Kuulasmaa, P. Palomaki, et al. Decline in Out-of-Hospital Coronary Heart Disease Deaths Has Contributed the Main Part to the Overall Decline in Coronary Heart Disease Mortality Rates Among Persons 35 to 64 Years of Age in Finland: The FINAMI Study Circulation, August 12, 2003; 108(6): 691 - 696. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 K. Silventoinen, P. Jousilahti, E. Vartiainen, and J. Tuomilehto Appropriateness of anthropometric obesity indicators in assessment of coronary heart disease risk among Finnish men and women Scand J Public Health, August 1, 2003; 31(4): 283 - 290. [Abstract] [PDF]
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A. Soro, M. Jauhiainen, C. Ehnholm, and M.-R. Taskinen Determinants of low HDL levels in familial combined hyperlipidemia J. Lipid Res., August 1, 2003; 44(8): 1536 - 1544. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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B Unal, J A Critchley, and S Capewell Missing, mediocre, or merely obsolete? An evaluation of UK data sources for coronary heart disease J Epidemiol Community Health, July 1, 2003; 57(7): 530 - 535. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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R.M. Conroy, K. Pyorala, A.P. Fitzgerald, S. Sans, A. Menotti, G. De Backer, D. De Bacquer, P. Ducimetiere, P. Jousilahti, U. Keil, et al. Estimation of ten-year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: the SCORE project Eur. Heart J., June 1, 2003; 24(11): 987 - 1003. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T Laatikainen, L Manninen, K Poikolainen, and E Vartiainen Increased mortality related to heavy alcohol intake pattern J Epidemiol Community Health, May 1, 2003; 57(5): 379 - 384. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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V. Salomaa, M. Ketonen, H. Koukkunen, P. Immonen-Raiha, T. Jerkkola, P. Karja-Koskenkari, M. Mahonen, M. Niemela, K. Kuulasmaa, P. Palomaki, et al. Trends in coronary events in Finland during 1983-1997; The FINAMI study Eur. Heart J., February 2, 2003; 24(4): 311 - 319. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 M. Salmi, C. Stolen, P. Jousilahti, G. G. Yegutkin, P. Tapanainen, T. Janatuinen, M. Knip, S. Jalkanen, and V. Salomaa Insulin-Regulated Increase of Soluble Vascular Adhesion Protein-1 in Diabetes Am. J. Pathol., December 1, 2002; 161(6): 2255 - 2262. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F Levi, F Lucchini, E Negri, and C La Vecchia Trends in mortality from cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases in Europe and other areas of the world Heart, August 1, 2002; 88(2): 119 - 124. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Lahti-Koski, P. Pietinen, M. Heliovaara, and E. Vartiainen Associations of body mass index and obesity with physical activity, food choices, alcohol intake, and smoking in the 1982-1997 FINRISK Studies Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, May 1, 2002; 75(5): 809 - 817. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 G. Hu, H. Pekkarinen, P. Halonen, O. Hanninen, H. Tian, Z. Guo, and E. Kumpusalo Different worlds, different tasks for health promotion: comparisons of health risk profiles in Chinese and Finnish rural people Health Promot. Int., December 1, 2001; 16(4): 315 - 320. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. M. Ruigrok, E. Buskens, and G. J. E. Rinkel Attributable Risk of Common and Rare Determinants of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Stroke, May 1, 2001; 32(5): 1173 - 1175. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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